欧洲著名的艺术学院有哪些？

爱丁堡艺术学院是欧洲最大、建校历史最长的艺术学院之一,其历史可以追溯到1760年的爱丁堡... ●英国诺森比亚大学(英国著名大学) 专业设置...

欧洲中世纪文学有哪些类型?它们各自有什么特征

欧洲中世纪文学按其性质分类，主要包括教会文学、史诗与谣曲、骑士文学和城市市民文学。
一、教会文学特点：基本文学体裁有基督故事、圣徒传、祷告文、赞美诗、宗教叙事诗、宗教戏剧等。教会文学题材大多取材于《圣经》，描写上帝万能、圣母奇迹、圣徒布道和信徒苦修等。创作目的主要是宣传宗教教义，鼓吹禁欲主义和来世思想。一般来说，教会文学思想价值不大。
二、史诗与谣曲：是在民间创作基础上形成的文学作品。依据其内容和产生的时间可分为两大类：一类是中世纪早期的英雄史诗，是氏族社会末期形成的“不自觉的”艺术创作。另一类是中世纪中期的英雄史诗，是封建社会确立时代的艺术作品。
“谣曲”是一种故事性的诗歌。它是从民间口头文学发展而来的，。“谣曲”的题材比较宽泛，有的咏唱历史事件和神话传说，有的传唱文学作品和现实生活中的故事，大多表现的是劳动人民的思想感情。在民间广为流传。
三、骑士文学：是欧洲骑士制度的产物，是中世纪欧洲特有的一种文学现象，体现了世俗封建主义文学的主要成就。骑士文学的主要内容是描写骑士的冒险经历和骑士的典雅爱情，表现骑士精神。主要体裁是骑士抒情诗和骑士传奇。
城市文学：又称市民文学，它是12世纪以后随着工商业中心城市的兴起而产生的反映市民思想感情的世俗文学。
四、城市文学：是在民间创作的基础上发展起来的。它取材于现实生活，充满乐观精神。其主要内容是揭露、抨击封建主和僧侣的残暴、贪婪、愚蠢，赞美市民的勇敢、机智、聪敏，具有鲜明的反封建、反教会的倾向。在艺术上，它的主要手法是讽刺，风格生动活泼；因受教会文学影响也采用隐喻、寓意和象征等手法。城市文学的主要形式有短小的韵文故事、长篇叙事诗、抒情诗和戏剧等。在欧洲国家中，法国的城市最为发达，其城市文学的成就也最高。

欧洲哪些国家说英语

瑞典，芬兰，丹麦，挪威，荷兰等许多国家都是全民英语教育，他们的母语是本国语言，但是英语通用。
其次,荷兰是除母语是英语的欧洲国家外英语普及率最高的国家,约70%的荷兰人讲英语。
欧洲除了大不列颠岛外很少有以英语为官方语言的国家，但在欧洲只要懂英语基本上就可以通行的了。下面附欧洲各国的语言列表：
马耳他 Malta 官方语言：马耳他语Maltese、英语English
马其顿 Macedonia 塞尔维亚-克罗地亚语Croatian、斯洛文尼亚语Slovenian 、马其顿语Macedonian
丹麦 Denmark 官方语言：丹麦语Danish；其他语言：法罗语 Faroese、格陵兰语
乌克兰 Ukraine 官方语言：俄语；通用语言：乌克兰语、波兰语、罗马尼亚语
比利时 Belgium 官方语言：佛兰芒语、法语
卢森堡 Luxembourg 意大利语、法语French、德语German、卢森堡语
圣马力诺 San Marino 官方语言：意大利语Italian
白俄罗斯 Byelorussia 官方语言：俄语Russian
立陶宛 Lithuania 立陶宛语Lithuanian、波兰语Polish、俄语
冰岛 Iceland 冰岛语Icelandic
列支敦士登 Liechtenstein 官方语言：德语；通用语言：意大利语、法语
匈牙利 Hungary 匈牙利语Hungarian
安道尔 Andorra 官方语言：加泰罗尼亚语Catalan；通用语言：法语、西班牙语、意大利语
西班牙 Spain 官方语言：西班牙语（即卡斯蒂利亚语）；其他语言：加利西亚语、巴斯克语
克罗地亚 Croatia 斯洛文尼亚语、塞尔维亚-克罗地亚语
希腊 Greece 官方语言：希腊语；通用语言：法语
芬兰 Finland 官方语言：芬兰语Finnish、瑞典语Swedish；其他语言：拉普兰语、俄语
阿尔巴尼亚 Albania 官方语言：阿尔巴尼亚语；通用语言：希腊语Greek
拉脱维亚 Latvia 拉脱维亚语、立陶宛语、俄语
法国 France 法语、科西嘉方言、加泰罗尼亚语、佛兰芒语、巴斯克语Basque、阿尔萨斯语、普罗旺斯语
法罗群岛（丹） 官方语言：法罗语；通用语言：丹麦语、格陵兰语
波兰 Poland 官方语言：波兰语
波斯尼亚和黑塞哥维那 斯洛文尼亚语、塞尔维亚-克罗地亚语、保加利亚语Bulgarian
罗马尼亚 Romania 官方语言：罗马尼亚语；其他语言：匈牙利语、德语
英国 Britain 官方语言：英语；威尔士北部：凯尔特语；苏格兰西北高地及北爱尔兰：盖尔语
俄罗斯 Russia 俄语
保加利亚 Bulgaria 保加利亚语（斯拉夫语系）
塞尔维亚和黑山共和国 塞尔维亚-克罗地亚语、斯洛文尼亚语、马其顿语
挪威 Norway 官方语言：挪威语；其他语言：拉普兰语、芬兰语
爱尔兰 Ireland 官方语言：爱尔兰语（盖尔语）、英语
爱沙尼亚 Esthonia 爱沙尼亚语、拉脱维亚语、立陶宛语、俄语
荷兰 Holand 官方语言：荷兰语；弗里斯兰省：弗里斯语
捷克 Czech 官方语言：捷克语、斯洛伐克语；其他语言：匈牙利语
梵蒂冈 Vatican 官方语言：意大利语、拉丁语
奥地利 Autria 德语
斯洛文尼亚 Slovenia 斯洛文尼亚语、塞尔维亚-克罗地亚语
斯洛伐克 Slovak Rep. 官方语言：捷克语、斯洛伐克语；其他语言：匈牙利语
葡萄牙 Portugal 葡萄牙语
意大利 Italy 官方语言：意大利语Italian；其他语言：德语、法语
瑞士 Switzerland 官方语言：德语German、法语、意大利语；其他语言：拉丁罗马语
瑞典 Sweden 通用语言：瑞典语、拉普兰语、芬兰语
德国 Germany 德语German
摩尔多瓦 Moldova 俄语
摩纳哥 Monaco 官方语言：法语；通用语言：摩纳哥语、英语、意大利语

博士硕士本科生用英语怎么说还有缩写

本科生 undergraduate student；硕士生 graduate student；博士生 doctorate student
各学位英文简写及全称
1、本科生毕业获学士学位：
BD，bachelors degree 或 the degree of bachelor
分成两种：
BA，即：bachelors degree of Arts， 文学士；
BS，即：bachelors degree of Science, 理学士。
2、硕士研究生获硕士学位：MD，masters degree;
MA ，Master of Arts ，文学硕士
MS， Master of Science 理学硕士
3、博士研究生获博士学位：Doctor of Philosophy，缩写成ph.D.
如：
DA， Doctor of Arts， 文学博士；
DDS， Doctor of Dental Science， 牙科博士；
DE， Doctor of Engineering， 工程博士；


扩展资料：

1、学士学位：
BD，bachelors degree 或 the degree of bachelor
普通高等学校本科毕业生（包括统招专升本）毕业考试成绩合格，在校表现良好，就可以获得学士学位。有的学校要求过大学英语四级。
2、硕士学位：MD，masters degree;
硕士是一个介于学士及博士之间的研究生学位(Master`s Degree)，拥有硕士学位(Master`s Degree)者通常象征具有基础的独立的思考能力。
3、博士学位：Doctor of Philosophy，缩写成ph.D.
博士学位是标志被授予者的受教育程度和学术水平达到规定标准的本专业的最高学识水准的学术称号。
参考资料：
搜狗百科——学士学位
搜狗百科——硕士学位
搜狗百科——博士学位

马克思《青年在选择职业时的考虑》英文版

Reflections of a Young Man
on The Choice of a Profession
Source: MECW Volume 1
Written: between August 10 and 16, 1835
First published: in Archiv für die Geschichte des Sozialismus und der Arbeiterbewegung, 1925
Translated from the Latin.
Transcribed: by Sally Ryan.
Nature herself has determined the sphere of activity in which the animal should move, and it peacefully moves within
that sphere, without attempting to go beyond it, without even an inkling of any other. To man, too, the Deity gave a
general aim, that of ennobling mankind and himself, but he left it to man to seek the means by which this aim can be
achieved; he left it to him to choose the position in society most suited to him, from which he can best uplift himself
and society.
This choice is a great privilege of man over the rest of creation, but at the same time it is an act which can destroy his
whole life, frustrate all his plans, and make him unhappy. Serious consideration of this choice, therefore, is certainly
the first duty of a young man who is beginning his career and does not want to leave his most important affairs to
chance.
Everyone has an aim in view, which to him at least seems great, and actually is so if the deepest conviction, the
innermost voice of the heart declares it so, for the Deity never leaves mortal man wholly without a guide; he speaks
softly but with certainty.
But this voice can easily be drowned, and what we took for inspiration can be the product of the moment, which
another moment can perhaps also destroy. Our imagination, perhaps, is set on fire, our emotions excited, phantoms
flit before our eyes, and we plunge headlong into what impetuous instinct suggests, which we imagine the Deity
himself has pointed out to us. But what we ardently embrace soon repels us and we see our whole existence in ruins.
We must therefore seriously examine whether we have really been inspired in our choice of a profession, whether an
inner voice approves it, or whether this inspiration is a delusion, and what we took to be a call from the Deity was
self-deception. But how can we recognise this except by tracing the source of the inspiration itself?
What is great glitters, its glitter arouses ambition, and ambition can easily have produced the inspiration, or what we
took for inspiration; but reason can no longer restrain the man who is tempted by the demon of ambition, and he
plunges headlong into what impetuous instinct suggests: he no longer chooses his position in life, instead it is
determined by chance and illusion.
Nor are we called upon to adopt the position which offers us the most brilliant opportunities; that is not the one which,
in the long series of years in which we may perhaps hold it, will never tire us, never dampen our zeal, never let our
enthusiasm grow cold, but one in which we shall soon see our wishes unfulfilled, our ideas unsatisfied, and we shall
inveigh against the Deity and curse mankind.
But it is not only ambition which can arouse sudden enthusiasm for a particular profession; we may perhaps have
embellished it in our imagination, and embellished it so that it appears the highest that life can offer. We have not
analysed it, not considered the whole burden, the great responsibility it imposes on us; we have seen it only from a
distance, and distance is deceptive.
Our own reason cannot be counsellor here; for it is supported neither by experience nor by profound observation,
being deceived by emotion and blinded by fantasy. To whom then should we turn our eyes? Who should support us
where our reason forsakes us?
Our parents, who have already travelled lifes road and experienced the severity of fate - our heart tells us.
And if then our enthusiasm still persists, if we still continue to love a profession and believe ourselves called to it after
we have examined it in cold blood, after we have perceived its burdens and become acquainted with its difficulties,
then we ought to adopt it, then neither does our enthusiasm deceive us nor does overhastiness carry us away.
But we cannot always attain the position to which we believe we are called; our relations in society have to some
extent already begun to be established before we are in a position to determine them.
Our physical constitution itself is often a threatening obstacle, and let no one scoff at its rights.
It is true that we can rise above it; but then our downfall is all the more rapid, for then we are venturing to build on
crumbling ruins, then our whole life is an unhappy struggle between the mental and the bodily principle. But he who is
unable to reconcile the warring elements within himself, how can he resist lifes tempestuous stress, how can he act
calmly? And it is from calm alone that great and fine deeds can arise; it is the only soil in which ripe fruits successfully
develop.
Although we cannot work for long and seldom happily with a physical constitution which is not suited to our
profession, the thought nevertheless continually arises of sacrificing our well-being to duty, of acting vigorously
although we are weak. But if we have chosen a profession for which we do not possess the talent, we can never
exercise it worthily, we shall soon realise with shame our own incapacity and tell ourselves that we are useless
created beings, members of society who are incapable of fulfilling their vocation. Then the most natural consequence
is self-contempt, and what feeling is more painful and less capable of being made up for by all that the outside world
has to offer? Self-contempt is a serpent that ever gnaws at ones breast, sucking the life-blood from ones heart and
mixing it with the poison of misanthropy and despair.
An illusion about our talents for a profession which we have closely examined is a fault which takes its revenge on us
ourselves, and even if it does not meet with the censure of the outside world it gives rise to more terrible pain in our
hearts than such censure could inflict.
If we have considered all this, and if the conditions of our life permit us to choose any profession we like, we may
adopt the one that assures us the greatest worth, one which is based on ideas of whose truth we are thoroughly
convinced, which offers us the widest scope to work for mankind, and for ourselves to approach closer to the general
aim for which every profession is but a means - perfection.
Worth is that which most of all uplifts a man, which imparts a higher nobility to his actions and all his endeavours,
which makes him invulnerable, admired by the crowd and raised above it.
But worth can be assured only by a profession in which we are not servile tools, but in which we act independently in
our own sphere. It can be assured only by a profession that does not demand reprehensible acts, even if
reprehensible only in outward appearance, a profession which the best can follow with noble pride. A profession
which assures this in the greatest degree is not always the highest, but is always the most to be preferred.
But just as a profession which gives us no assurance of worth degrades us, we shall as surely succumb under the
burdens of one which is based on ideas that we later recognise to be false.
There we have no recourse but to self-deception, and what a desperate salvation is that which is obtained by selfbetrayal!
Those professions which are not so much involved in life itself as concerned with abstract truths are the most
dangerous for the young man whose principles are not yet firm and whose convictions are not yet strong and
unshakeable. At the same time these professions may seem to be the most exalted if they have taken deep root in
our hearts and if we are capable of sacrificing our lives and all endeavours for the ideas which prevail in them.
They can bestow happiness on the man who has a vocation for them, but they destroy him who adopts them rashly,
without reflection, yielding to the impulse of the moment.
On the other hand, the high regard we have for the ideas on which our profession is based gives us a higher standing
in society, enhances our own worth, and makes our actions un-challengeable.
One who chooses a profession he values highly will shudder at the idea of being unworthy of it; he will act nobly if only
because his position in society is a noble one.
But the chief guide which must direct us in the choice of a profession is the welfare of mankind and our own
perfection. It should not be thought that these two interests could be in conflict, that one would have to destroy the
other; on the contrary, mans nature is so constituted that he can attain his own perfection only by working for the
perfection, for the good, of his fellow men.
If he works only for himself, he may perhaps become a famous man of learning, a great sage, an excellent poet, but
he can never be a perfect, truly great man.
History calls those men the greatest who have ennobled themselves by working for the common good; experience
acclaims as happiest the man who has made the greatest number of people happy; religion itself teaches us that the
ideal being whom all strive to copy sacrificed himself for the sake of mankind, and who would dare to set at nought
such judgments?
If we have chosen the position in life in which we can most of all work for mankind, no burdens can bow us down,
because they are sacrifices for the benefit of all; then we shall experience no petty, limited, selfish joy, but our
happiness will belong to millions, our deeds will live on quietly but perpetually at work, and over our ashes will be shed
the hot tears of noble people.